Soft Tissue Injuries Therapy Effects Health And Social Care Essay

The correlativities between tissues and high frequence sound moving ridges have been studied and suggested as a therapy for over seven decennaries now ( Wood et al. , 1927 ) . Ultrasound has become a really widely used method to handle a assortment of medical conditions from lesions to tumors ( Young & A ; Dyson. , 1990 ) and is used normally for handling soft tissue hurts. The usage of ultrasound for handling soft tissue hurts is over a million at National Health Services ( NHS ) in UK ( Haar et al. , 1985 ) . Ultrasound therapy has become the most widely used intervention for soft tissue hurts ( Speed, 2001 ) . Ultrasound is mechanical quiver of high frequence unhearable sound which gets converted into acoustic energy by mechanical distortion of piezoelectric crystal nowadays in the caput ( Haar, 1987 ) . Curative ultrasound has a frequence scope from 0.75 to 3 MHz. and ultrasound moving ridges of low frequence have higher incursion but are less in focal point, hence ultrasound of frequence 1MHz is recommended for patients who have more fat and besides for deeper hurts and 3MHz for superficial lesions ( Gann, 1991 ) . Phonophoresis and extracorporeal daze wave therapy ( ESWT ) are two ultrasound therapy signifiers used clinically ; phonophoresis uses a medicated unction which acts as a matching media ( Kanikkannan et al. , 2000 ) . ESWT uses higher energy concentration which farther could be modulated with the usage of modified lithotripter ( Loew et al. , 1999 ) . Ultrasound affects the tissues and cell in a organic structure via either thermic or non-thermal physical mechanisms ( Speed, 2001 and Young, 2002 ) . When ultrasound is given to a patient, a portion of it is absorbed taking to heat coevals within the tissues it travels through. The soaking up by the tissue depends on the frequence of ultrasound used and the tissue belongingss like the nature and the vascularization grade. Ultrasound is absorbed more by tissues wit higher protein content as compared to those with higher fat content. In some scenarios the usage of ultrasound gives bio-effects without affecting of import temperature alterations, like low strength spacial mean temporal norm ( SATA ) . To produse the non-thermal consequence in ultrasound, one or more of the physical processs cavitation, standing moving ridges and acoustic cyclosis, are used. Even though ultrasound has become an of import curative facet used in physical medical specialty, the construct of dealingss between biological system and sound moving ridges have non been explained decently ( Bradnock et al. , 1996 ) . Ultrasound is normally employed for redness decrease and tissue fix sweetening in the intervention of soft tissue harm and is most effectual on recent soft tissue lesions ( Hashish et al. , 1986 ) . There are merely some clinical appraisals available to mensurate the efficaciousness of ultrasound intervention in soft tissue harm even though it is widely used. The most common intervention given by physical therapists are for hurts related to soft tissue like those located in joint capsule, corium, sinews and ligaments ( Dyson, 1987 ) . Survey shows that within Britain, physical therapists who use ultrasound for intervention constitute 20 % in NHS and 54 % of all private intervention as in 1985 ( Haar, 1987 ) . The benefits and effects of intervention given does non acquire decently assessed unless there is sufficient scientific and clinical grounds to back up the same. This essay has been done maintaining in head this point in head and is aimed at reexamining the literatures available to measure the effectivity of utilizing ultrasound in handling soft tissue amendss and hurts. This essay is made to reexamine available literatures to measure the clinical and scientific grounds in support of utilizing ultrasound therapy in handling soft tissue hurt every bit good as to place of import countries that could be utilized in future research that could be carried out to develop and heighten the current cognition and apprehension of the topic.LITERATURE REVIEWSAs per Dyson ( 1987 ) , there are three overlapping phases in the fix of soft tissue hurts, viz. early and late ague redness, proliferation and remodeling. Young ( 2002 ) points about an highly dynamic inflammatory stage when a figure of cell s like mast cells, thrombocytes, neutrophils and macrophages come in and travel off from the affected country or lesion site. Harmonizing to the surveies, curative ultrasound has the ability to speed up the fix by interacting with these cells and command their activities ( Young 2000 ) . Harmonizing to a randomized controlled double blinded survey based on an experimental reading on human abdominal tissue conducted by Snow and Johnson ( 2003 ) indicate that the dose of curative ultrasound given to the topics did bring forth anti inflammatory consequence. However, the research worker was non confident sing the consequence and has stated farther that the clinically applied ultrasound was non better than anti inflammatory consequence produced by placebo. Harmonizing to a randomized two-base hit blinded controlled test survey done on topics following a remotion of wedged lower 3rd molar surgically with a entire engagement of 150 topics, Hashish et al. , ( 1986 ) found that the puffiness was reduced significantly in ultrasound group every bit good as placebo group in contrast with the control group which was non treated. It was besides noted that the highest anti inflammatory consequence was attained at the lowest strength ( 0.1 and 0,5 Wcm-2 ) and lowest anti inflammator y consequence was noticed at highest strength ( 1.5 Wcm-2 ) . The placebo group was besides noticed to give similar consequences that were seen at lower strength of ultrasound, which indicates the consequence of curative ultrasound consequence was comparable to placebo every bit good. The research worker besides fails to explicate if the good consequence at low frequence of ultrasound was noticed because of thermic effects or non thermic effects. Harmonizing to Dyson ( 1987 ) , mast cells and thrombocytes get activated and let go of substances like chemotactic agents which have the ability to pull to the injured country polymorph atomic leukocytes and monocytes to originate a fix when there is soft connective tissue hurt. Dyson and Young ( 1990 ) conducted an in-vitro controlled experimental survey on macrophage-like cell line. It was found that uninterrupted exposure to ultrasound for 5 proceedingss at 0.75 MHz appeared to be advantageous as compared to the same continuance for 3.0 MHz exposure, in release of fibroblast effectual substances from cells likely by bring forthing permeableness alterations. This leads to a release of performed mitogenic substances that involves stable cavitation. On the other manus, exposure to 3.0 MHz does look to excite the cell, the synthesis and secernment of fibroblast mitogenic substances go on a small subsequently by the cells normal secernment procedure. Ultrasound has the ability to excite histamine release by degranulation from the mast cell in vitro every bit good as vivo ( Hashish, 1986 and Fyfe & A ; Chahl, 1982 ) . The release of chemotactic agents is besides possible as these are besides present in the mast cells. Due to these grounds, curative ultrasound intervention is effectual if given within a few hours of the hurt. The stimulation in degranulate of mast cells with the application of ultrasound could perchance be due to increase in its permeableness to calcium as a consequence of ultrasound. At this phase of the hurt, the major chemical secreted that modifies the hurt environment is histamine ( Young, 2002 ) . Some surveies carried out by different research workers have besides shown conflicting results for the curative ultrasound in intervention of soft tissue hurts. Harmonizing to Baker ( 2001 ) , small cogent evidence is present to back up that active ultrasound therapy is more effectual in handling hurting or assorted musculoskeletal jobs than placebo. Harmonizing to a survey conducted by Middlemast & A ; Chatterjee ( 2003 ) on effectivity of curative ultrasound in intervention of soft tissue hurt concludes that curative ultrasound is really effectual in handling the status and is even more effectual if applied under 24 hours of the hurt. It farther provinces that there is an appreciable decrease in swelling every bit good with the application of ultrasound therapy. Harmonizing to Binder et Al ( 1985 ) who did a randomized controlled survey on ultrasound effectivity in handling sidelong epicondylitis, if the inflammatory province of the hurt remains for a long period so the response to ultrasound intervention is hapless. Another research carried out by Makuloluwe & A ; Mouzas ( 1977 ) that deals with intervention of sprained mortise joint indicates that ultrasound therapy is effectual in soft tissue hurt. It farther clarifies that the mechanical quivers from ultrasound increases the flow of blood, permeableness of capillaries and tissue metamorphosis. These mechanical quivers are generated by change overing high frequence jumping current generated by an electrical generator in the ultrasound. Nyanzi et Al. ( 1999 ) did a survey on the dosage and clip continuance of ultrasound and found that it had no benefit over utilizing assumed ultrasound in handling sidelong ligament sprains of the ankle articulation. Harmonizing to a survey carried by Bradn ock et Al. ( 1995 ) , low frequence ultrasound had really good consequence which showed instantly after the ultrasound therapy I intervention of mortise joint sprains. A survey carried out by Young ( 2002 ) states that the proliferative period of the healing procedure comprise of cell incursion of lesion, angiogenesis, matrix deposition, hurt decrease and re-re-epithelisation. Low & A ; Reed ( 2000 ) province that this phase of connective tissue model is accompanied by fibroblast of fresh blood vass. Dyson ( 1987 ) states that the proliferation begins after three yearss of the hurt and during this clip the cells are attracted to the cut and fresh blood vass are regenerated. The connective tissue matrix chiefly produces fibroblasts and contributes toward wound contraction. The curative ultrasound when right applied is expected to rush up the fix procedure by impacting the endothelial cells which is required for angiogenesis. The contraction rate can be accelerated by application of curative ultrasound therapy to the hurt during its sensitive phase ( Dyson, 1987 ) . At this phase, contractile myofibroblast temporarily develops and the contraction leads to the decrease in the size of the lesion. Ultrasound therapy may besides act upon the contraction of the lesion via effects from macrophages that in bend accelerates the production of contractile cells in the injured country. Barry et Al. ( 1990 ) carried out an experimental survey based on effects of ultrasound therapy for handling Achilles sinews in mice and noticed that there was an addition in the synthesis of collagen in the treated sinews as compared with the sinew that was non treated and the consequences showed consistence with the addition in collagen synthesis and better strength of the repaired sinew. Dyson and Pond ( 1970 ) conducted a controlled experimental test on pinnule of coney ear and concluded that ultrasound therapy AIDSs in tissue regeneration. They farther added that the most effectual application for maximal tissue regeneration was noticed when pulsed ultrasound was given at 3MHz. they ruled out any the function of thermic effects in regeneration of tissues. They noticed that when ultrasound was applied to connective tissues so a morphological change in fibroblast cells was found that could be associated to the accelerated coevals of the units of molecular constituent of collagen. Dyson & A ; Young ( 1990 ) conducted an experimental controlled survey on lesions in grownup rat ‘s wing tegument after exposing to 0.1 tungstens / square centimeter SAT, and frequence of 0.75 MHz or 3.0 MHz of ultrasound therapy. A really high grade of vascularization was found in the two groups treated with ultrasound than the control group. It besides confirmed that the early stage of fix is accelerated by the usage of ultrasound. But, after 7 yearss of intervention, there was no important difference between the treated and the control group. They besides concluded that ultrasound given at 0.75 MHz. had better consequence than 3 MHz, bespeaking a possible engagement of non-thermal ultrasound constituent. Harvey et Al. ( 1975 ) conducted a controlled experimental survey on human fibroblast and indicated that the protein synthesis in fibroblast could be stimulated by the usage of curative ultrasound. They besides indicated that extremist structural alterations like permeableness alteration which has possible part in stimulation mechanism are besides induced by the intervention. Webster et Al. ( 1980 ) did a in-vitro controlled survey on human embryologic fibroblast and stated that the physical mechanism of cavitation is involved in actuating the synthesis of proteins in fibroblast when curative ultrasound is applied. They besides indicated that the the fibroblast stimulation gets suppressed with the application of force per unit area of 2 ambiance in the irradiation procedure. It therefore suggests that the responsible physical mechanism is nil but cavitation. Dyson and Young ( 1990 ) reported macrophage that generate fibroblast mitogenic factor could be stimulated by ultrasound therapy using the important function played by cell line U937in wound repairing moving as a scavenger cell in the debridement of lesions every bit good as a beginning of of import factors that stimulate the fix. Dyson and Sucking ( 1987 ) performed a randomised controlled test survey on worlds with chronic ulcer andA A foundA that tissue fix is causedA due toA alteration in diffusion rate and membrane permeableness obtained as a consequence of acoustic steaming and warming doing stimulation of tissue fix byA alteringA the clip taken for protein synthesisA .and besides found that cavitationA leads to alter in the protein synthesis by fibroblast. A In the survey conducted by Young ( 2002 ) it is found that remodelling stage of woundA tooks longer or less timeA depending upon theA A A the nature of tissue involved in the hurt as due to injuryA change inA A the tensile strength. collegen content, cellular nature of lesion occurs. Webster et Al, . ( 1980 ) conducted a controlled experimental survey designA and found that collagen synthesis in human fibroblastA occurs due to cavitation consequence obtained by ultrasound application in vitro, diploidA , embryonicA fibroblast of human. .It is besides ascertained thatA addition in tensile strength and granulation tissue formation occurs due to increased collagen synthesis. IncreasedA tensile strength and absorptionA capacity of sinew caused due to applicationA of uninterrupted ultrasound is observedA by an experimental controlled survey done by Enwemeka et al. , ( 1990 ) A who treatedA right tendo-calcaneous of coney with uninterrupted ultrasound.Researcher concluded that high strength sonication is non required to enhanceA A mending strength of sinew. Though this findingA is different for worlds. InA another experimental survey performed by Barry et al. , ( 1990 ) on Achilles sinew hurts in rats it is observed that ultrasound enhances the rate of sinew fix when uninterrupted ultrasound therapy of 1.5 Watt / square metre is applied on rat Achilles sinew. ThisA consequence may be found different for worlds.Critical analysis of the literatureTo heighten the application of ultrasound, specifically concentrating the patient attention for people enduring from soft tissue hurts, a systematic analysis and reexamine all facets of available survey was done. Thi s was carried out in order to happen out if the consequences and effects inferred by assorted surveies done antecedently in the same field render biological principle that could be taken into history for the application of ultrasound for soft tissue hurts. Baker et al. , ( 2001 ) carried out a reappraisal on bio-physical effects of curative ultrasound. The research worker brought frontward the fact that the by and large characterized ultrasound ‘s biophysical effects do non happen in vivo ; nor has the same been confirmed to possess any clinical impact under described scenarios. The survey besides suggests the absence of bio-physical groundss that can function as scientific land for curative ultrasound usage for attention among patients who suffer with soft tissue hurts. However, most of the surveies carried out on the capable affair by assorted research workers have explained the biological effects of ultrasound with the usage of vitro surveies. For case, Webster D F et al. , ( 1980 ) performed an experimental in-vitro controlled survey on primary, diploid human embryologic fibroblast. The survey was carried out to happen the function of ultrasound induced cavitation in the in vitro stimulation of collagen synthesis in human fibroblasts. It was found that collagen synthesis was stimulated similar to general protein synthesis with the application of ultrasound-induced cavitation. Such an extrapolation of consequences that were derived in-vitro to intact tissue behaviour, treated at similar curative ultrasound degree had to be approached meticulously. Prior to this survey there was no other survey to strongly show cavitation in tissues with curative degree of ultrasound that were treated in-vivo. However, it can be commented that cavitation that stimu lates protein synthesis in-vitro stimulation in human fibroblasts might non be aroused in-vivo. Furthermore, application of the consequences from the survey would non be possible on human tissue because of the changing environmental conditions and the existent consequence could seldom occur, when the human organic structures own defensive mechanism takes control. Per Baker et al. , ( 2001 ) , extrapolation of in vitro surveies to in vivo scenarios by allowing for reasonable impact of homoeostatic mechanism of the organic structure and by commanding and supplying similar dose would be a hard undertaking to achieve. Barry et al. , ( 1990 ) carried a research on the consequence of ultrasound therapy on the Achillies tendon fix hurts that was experimented on rats. The research worker must hold experienced issues wile generalizing the rats study on human tissues due to aforesaid issues of differences in tissue constructions, difference in sizes etc. Ultrasound enacts otherwise in different environments, even though all attempts are made by the research worker to supply curative ultrasound dosage during experimentation and license for chairing impact of human organic structure ‘s homeostatic mechanism. Similarly, Young and Dyson ( 1990 ) performed a survey to find the impact of ultrasound on angiogenesis. It was done to look into the consequence of curative ultrasound on new blood cells formation in full thickness, exercised lesions in wing teguments of the grownup rats and was assessed utilizing micro focal X ray techniques. There was no reference of the manner of ultrasound used for the survey – that is whether the ultrasound manner was uninterrupted or pulse. Explanation was non provided by the research worker sing the physical mechanism of ultrasound that was involved in the survey for stimulation of angiogenesis. Further there is a high possibility of job that must hold been experienced during the survey while generalizing carnal survey on human tissues. ADecisionWith the recent promotion in medical and healthcare engineerings, the handiness of relatively cheaper, little and portable handheld diagnostic medical equipments, there has been a wide-spread usage of ultrasoun d for the intervention of soft tissue hurts. Basically, Ultrasound is the usage of acoustic energy that increments cellular protein synthesis by originating cellular activity. At a cellular degree, it stimulates mechanical quivers for micro indulgent intervention at cellular degree with the usage of high frequence sound moving ridges and is really effectual for the intervention of soft tissue hurts, joint conditions and chronic instances. The usage of ultrasound instigates mending of surgical lesions and sores by cut downing puffinesss and handling them with minimum fibrosis and heightening vascularization. Numerous surveies have assessed chronic chapters or the 1s where the intervals have non been mentioned and there are deductions of ultrasound ‘s important importance in the usage of first phases of an hurt. As a affair of pick, to relieve musculus cramp and hurting that will increment tissue extensibility, ultrasound can be conspicuously be used because of its healing effec ts. Ultrasound can besides be used in combination with stretching exercisings to derive optimum tissue length ( Reed & A ; Ashikaga, 1997 ) . In the normal articulatio genus ligament ( Ellis, 1962 ) , and in cicatrix tissue ( Noyes et al, . 1974 ) , the usage of thermic doses of ultrasound has shown lengthening. When the tissue is heated to an appropriate temperature, application of ultrasound increases the opportunity to widen the tissues last for 10 proceedingss, A A A prior to the targeted tissue coming back to normal temperature ( Frankel & A ; Nordin, 1980 ) . It is of extreme importance to do certain that the mechanicalA consequence of low-frequency ultrasound and thermalA consequence of high-frequency ultrasound are maintained moderately good. Perfusion, hurt granulation acceleration, hurt cleaning and metabolic intensification are included under the physiological consequences of low frequence ultrasound. It is notable that optimum curative effectivity of ultrasound can be achieved at dosage ( W/cm2 ) andA dose ( series and frequence of application ) . Mechanism of interconnectedness and coaction between biological systems and sound moving ridges stands to be inconclusive, even though legion outstanding researches have been done to understand the physical, psychological and physiological systems implicated to ultrasound therapy intervention. Although several important trials and surveies have been done in-vitro every bit good as on animate beings to understand the biological effects of ultrasound, ill-defined enigma prevails about the ultrasound therapy action in instances of soft tissue hurts that still need to be ventured into. Similarly, to apologize the biological impacts in usage of curative ultrasound, there are deficient groundss available. There needs to transport out more strict in vivo surveies and researches to cognize these inside informations that can assist to utilize ultrasound in a more optimum mode to handle soft tissue injuries.A ( Word Count: 3371 )

The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

Case study: PROBLEM STATEMENT No laws for blind and disable and therefore no rights are allocated to them. BACKGROUND INFORMATION:United Kingdom has rectified united nation convention on the right of person with disabilities on 8 June 2009 and after that it submit to the report to UNCRDP about suggested improvement and activities that it has implemented after the rectification of it. Before going to the content of the report, first we visited the UNCRDP articles which are related to blind.Article which are linked to disable (blind) and mobility:Article one describe the aim of the convention which is to grow , safeguard and ensure equal human rights, basic freedoms for all disable Persons those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments. Article 2 provided definitions the related terms. Languages, display of text for disable , Braille for blind, tactile communication, , accessible multimedia , written, audio, human-reader, plain-language and improved and alternative modes are included in â€Å"communication† , spoken and signed languages and all forms of non-spoken languages are all included in language. All the design of products, environments, programmers and services that can be used by people , these all cannot exclude disable person â€Å"universal design† â€Å"Article 4 the general obligations ensure nations to adopt all appropriate legislative, administrative, policies and other measures like technology, mobility aid , devices at affordable cost for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present Convention and also ensure in all these process , disable person should be include in it. Article 9 â€Å"the Accessibility† enables persons with disabilities to live freely and for that states parties shall take suitable measures on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, elimination of obstacles and barriers to accessibility. At buildings, roads, transportation and other indoor and outdoor, including schools, housing, medical facilities and workplaces, facilities and Information, communications and electronic and emergency services. Furthermore states parties shall also take appropriate measures for developing standard provide in buildings and other facilities open to the public signage in Braille and in easy to read and understand forms, promote the design, development, production and distribution of accessible information and communications technologies and systems which help disable. Article 20 which is Personal mobility describe to provide quality mobility aids, devices, assistive technologies and forms of live assistance and intermediaries, including by making them available at affordable cost; and provide training in mobility skill to disable person.Disability rights in the UK: UK Independent Mechanism updated submission to the UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities ahead of the public examination of the UK's implementation of the UN CRPD. The step shall be taken by United Kingdom and the step which it already taken after the rectification of UNCRPD under its article 33 are describe the submission provides information on the implementation in the UK of the CRPD in August 2017.Accessibility (Articles 9, 21, 30):In this report, they describe their problem which was earlier and now it exist after it about accessibility article which is that there is a continues barriers to accessing rail, bus and taxi services across the UK for disable person and no sufficient information available to people with sensory impairments on trains and buses. After the rectification of UNCRDP, the Bus Services Act 2017 (the 2017 Act) was introduced on 19 May 2016 in the House of Lords and received Royal Assent on April 27 2017.The Bus Services Act 2017 (the 2017 Act): To improve bus services for passengers and uses a new tool kit to enable improvement is the aim of the act. The powers in the 2017 Act could be used to achieve better journeys with new buses serving more or different locations, operating at night or weekends, Easier, contactless payment, More tickets that work across operators and modes, provide information about when your bus will arrive and how much it will cost and it will more accessible for disable passengers. In UK one in twelve people being disable so in this it emphasize to provide inclusive service to them as they more use bus than rail and take a step to improve the service.Provide them accessibility features like wheelchair, more space on-board vehicles, and make a system which provides audible and visible service which identifies routes and stops which help blind. Provide information to them as many disable do not want to travel in it as they have lack confidence about it. It is recommending in the act that authorities should provide information about the features of the services which help disable passengers. Information should describe transport networks, bus point, stations and stops, put a Accessibility features for disable in the vehicles such as audible and visible announcement; Information must provide about bus passes and local discretionary concessions, provide training to customers and staff about disability awareness. All the transportation which provided in soft copy must provide in hard copy and accessible format such as braille. (Disability rights in the UK: UK Independent Mechanism updated submission to the CRPD Committee)(Convention on the Rights of Persons nwith Disabilities and Optional Protocol)(https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY;mtdsg_no=IV-15;chapter=4;lang=_en;clang=_en)(The Bus Services Act 2017 New powers and opportunities) LESSON LEARN:United nation convention on the rights of disable person are developed comprehensively, but this paper does not have value unless and until the countries adopt it , rectified it into their laws and make act which are align to this convention . law is the document which provide framework about action which need to be undertaken. In our country, there is no law developed specifically for blind and for their mobility it means we destroy our extensive population which are blind and not involve them in our economy and not follow fundamental right of Pakistan constitution 1973.

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Discuss the details of the Marshall Plan in comparison with the Morgenthau Plan.ReasonsRepercussionsProfits U.S. get - Essay Example It is worth mentioning that the Morgenthau Plan existed as an underprivileged policy choice. As a result, it forced Germany into a decline and deindustrialization hurting the rest of the world in relation to economics and world security. It may be argued that this was a major factor in initiating the Second World War. On the other hand, the Marshall Plan was noted to create righteous circles of growth resulting to being the most favorable policy that developing nations ought to use (Fulbrook 16). The Morgenthau Plan was not implemented because this plan stressed on reindustrialization. As a result, it depressed carrying capacity in relation to population, forced institutions to failure, and agricultural yields to severely decline. It is worth noting that globalization acts on all emerging nations in the same way the Morgenthau Plan operated on Germany post-World War I. While globalization brought nothing but regression to low-income countries, it conveyed more wealth and prosperity t o high-income states. Thus, instead of a merging of income, there is a rising divergence of nation’s proceeds. This was notably not in line to what the European countries required to save them from the effects of the war. It is worth noting that the war left Europe in dreadful economic shape. ... This resulted to the United States to implement the Marshall Plan to aid in the reduction of the awful aftermath of the war. The U.S., therefore, helped reconstruct the economic well-being and potency of European society. It is worth noting that this was not just a humanitarian aid, but was the finest way to combat communism in Europe. This is because the European nations accepting U.S. aid needed to function as an economic unit. Moreover, a reconstructed Europe would benefit the United States by yet again being able to purchase American factory and farm harvests. More significantly, a frugally strong Europe would halt the spread of communalism (Turner and Henry 209). However, the Soviets rejected Marshall’s request to help grow a plan to rebuild Europe. They (Soviets) said that his plan stood as an arrangement to rule Europe economically. The Eastern European nations that were under Soviets control, therefore, failed to participate. In a meeting that took place in Paris in 19 47, America was disappointed in the direction the plan was taking. This is because 16 Western European nations came with a distinct â€Å"shopping list," list†, other than taking a unified plan for Europe as a whole. Moreover, western Germany that was occupied by Britain, France, and the United States was thought to remain economically unstable hence not eligible to receive much of the Marshall Plan aid. The French assumed this would stop Germany from ever again going to combat. However, Marshall stressed the significance of full German participation. He saw it as essential for the economic recapture of Western Europe. The Marshall Plan was noted to do numerous necessary things. These were providing philanthropic aid for

English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

English - Essay Example This is because, they never gets the chance to practise their visions due to fear of being victimized by the fellows who practise orthodoxy. It is also important to note here that, orthodoxy can even hinder the progress and development of a country, in that investors or business men who may want to invest in the country producing a unique commodity, may be blocked out of the market if the sale of the commodity goes against the generally accepted norms of the country’s citizens (Tipton & Witte, 2007). In the work of Shirley Jackson, the author affirms categorically the demerits of confining to the generally accepted norms of a people, a society, community or a country. He strongly proposes for the total discarding of such acts b individuals. If orthodoxy is not ignored in societies by individuals, then it becomes very difficult for the people to maximise their potentials, utilize the resources available at their disposal for their personal benefits and that of the whole society. Orthodoxy limits our visions, impairs our judgement and blocks our capabilities, I therefore strongly agree with Shirley that people should never accept to be defined by the mere rules and regulations which the older generations adhered to which made no progress in their lives (Fass, 2004). The family plays very vital roles in the discouraging the habit of orthodoxy. This is portrayed in Jackson Bill’s family where his family strongly discouraged orthodoxy by stating out the inhuman effects of orthodoxy practise. When a family discourages its members from engaging in such practises, their innocence is not victimized and their progress are not blocked. It is therefore very important that families stop their children from the blind confinement of some norms believed to be true without clearly realizing or finding out neither the demerits of such adherence nor the effects of

Vaginitis particularly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Vaginitis particularly - Essay Example The subsequent sections provide an overview regarding this infection. The common type of vaginitis is caused by the trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis), an anaerobic parasitic flagellated protozoan. The T. vaginalis trophozoite has five flagella arising near the cytosome. Four of the said flagella extend outside the cell collectively. The fifth flagellum, the function of which is unknown, wraps backwards along the surface of the organism. Apart from these, a barb-like axostyle, which may be used for attachment to surfaces and cause damage of tissues observed in trichomoniasis infections, protrudes on the opposite of the four-flagella bundle. (Talaro, 2002) The T. vaginalis has multiple enzymes that catalyze a number of reactions. However, it lacks mitochondria and other necessary enzymes and cytosomes to conduct oxidative phosporylation. This organism survives by obtaining nutrients transported through the cell membrane and via phagocytosis. To maintain energy requirements, it makes use of a small amount of enzymes through glycolysis of glucose to glycerol and succinate in the cytoplasm. These processes are followed by the further conversion of pyruvate and malate to hydrogen and acetate in the hydrogenosome organelle. (Ryan & Ray, 2004) The normal vaginal flora is maintained by a complex and intricate balance of microorganisms that include lactobacilli, corynebacteria and yeast. In addition, this microenvironment is influenced by hormones. With this, a decrease in estrogen levels, which usually occurs in prepuberty and postmenopause, can result in an increased risk of infection. (Gor, 2006) It should be noted that growth of pathogenic organisms such as T. vaginalis is inhibited given the normal postmenarchal and premenopausal vaginal pH ranging from 3.8 to 4.2. In this regard, disturbance in the normal vaginal pH can change the vaginal flora resulting in the overgrowth of pathogens. Myriad factors such as the use of feminine hygiene products, contraceptives, vaginal medications, antibiotics and contracting sexually transmitted diseases my bring about the alteration of the vaginal environment. (Gor, 2006) Specifically for females, the T. vaginalis infection may occur when the normal acidity of the vagina changes from a healthy and semi-acidic pH to a more basic pH of 5 to 6. This organism could also survive for a maximum of 24 hours in urine, semen or water samples. Considered as one of the most durable protozoan trophozites, the T. vaginalis has the ability to persist on fomites with a moist surface for one to two hours (Talaro, 2002). As mentioned, the T. vaginalis mainly infect vaginal epithelium. Aside from this, it may also infect the endocervix, urethra and Bartholin and Skene glands. (Gor, 2006) Prevalence and Risk Factors In the United States (US), the actual frequency of vaginitis caused by T. vaginalis is difficult to ascertain. According to research, it affects all races and age groups. Highest incidence is noted among African American, wherein occurrence may range from 1.5 to nearly 4 times greater than other racial or ethnic groups (Sorvillo, 2001). On the other hand, lowest incidence is in Asians. In terms of age, high incidence is observed among young, sexually active women. (Gor,

Nokia Siemens Networks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Nokia Siemens Networks - Essay Example The organizational structure of the new company will see its headquarters based in Helsinki, Finland-the home of Nokia. It will also house the company’s Radio access and operational support systems for the new firm. Munich, Germany-the home of Siemens-will have four business units for the new firm. All the sectors of the two companies will be headed by the current executives of the companies both in Finland and in Germany. The technical systems of Nokia Siemens Networks are designed into six business units, these are; Services, Radio Access, IP Networking, Transport, Operational Support Systems, Service Core and Applications and Broadband Access. Individual financial performance, services and products offered by each company differ and therefore the joint venture is expected to incorporate not only the services but also the strategies used by both Nokia and Siemens to improve the new business. Looking at the individual companies, a lot has been done by the two in terms of technologies, skills, human resource, and infrastructure. Siemens is an electronic and Telecommunication Company located in Berlin and Munich, Germany. It is considered one of the greatest and successful companies of all time with well over 461,000 employees and millions of employees in over 190 countries according to 2006 estimates. Siemens has been active in many areas of electrical, communication, construction, medical and transportation sectors. The main business that the company engages in is the communication sector. It offers products, services, and other solutions for industries adopting ICT technology in their day to day running of their businesses. Siemens also provides a range of power and lighting products such as electronic control gear, opt semiconductors, lamps etc.

Germany and the European Union Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Germany and the European Union - Essay Example As mentioned above, EU embraces international trade at a larger extent. Germany would benefit from this as it would the other countries in the integration. As a matter of facts, Germany can be looked at as a blessing to these other countries (Schweiger 12). This country is prosperous and has a strong economic productivity (Janning, tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de). Thus, there is a lot that it brings on the table to the benefit of EU. For instance, it has a pool of quality products and up-to-date technology that is available at reduced or no tariffs to other nations in the integration. As would be like with any other symbiotic relationship, Germany is set to gain a lot from other nations as well. She would trade buying goods and services from other EU Nations. This will make the EU self-sufficient continent whereby all Member countries benefit (Janning, tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de). As much as it is crucial for Europe to grow strong politically, it is obvious that economic dynamism brought about by integration as well as the attractiveness of the market to have played a bigger role as a driving force that prompted other European Nations to accede (Schweiger 16). Germany European Policy has supported the integration process and the establishment of institutions relevant to prosperity of the integration (Schweiger 22). In addition, Germany foreign policy ensures that her relations with other countries are aligned to EU policy (Janning, tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de). In conclusion, Germany undoubtedly desires a Europe that has the ability of acting, transparent and democratic, one that has a strengthened European Parliament and certainly that has clearly defined

The Late 19th Century and the Drive for Empire Essay Example for Free

The Late 19th Century and the Drive for Empire Essay 1. Effects of Industrialization on†¦ the economy The industrial revolution played a role in the emergence of the basic economic patterns that have characterized much of modern European economic life. Some historians characterize the period before 1895 and after 1873 as a great depression. Europeans experienced a series of economic crises during these years (Prices of agriculture produces fell). Slumps reduced profits in the business cycle. Although recession occurred at different times from 1895 to world war 2, Europe experienced an economic boom and got a prosperity level that encouraged people to look back at the era as la belle à ©poque (the golden age in civilization ) specific countries /zones Germany: replaced Great Britain as the industrial leader of Europe. Germany gained superiority in new areas of manufacturing (organic chemicals, electronic equipment). Britain had an established industrial plant and made it more difficult to shift to the new techniques of Industrial Revolution. The relationship between science and technology became closer. Germany was accustomed to change. European economic zones: Europe was divided into two economic zones. The growth led to new patterns for European agriculture that emerged. It included an abundance of grain and lower transportation costs caused the prices of farm commodities plummeting . Southern Italy, Austria-hungary ,Spain=little industrialized the urban environment Urban dwellers make up an increasing percentage of the European Population. There were 40% in Britain, 25% in France and Germany, 10% in Eastern Europe. Then after the industrial revolution, the population increased to 80% in Britain, 45% in F, 6% in germany, and 30% in Weastern Europe. There were also many inventions and innovations that occurred in this time period -Electricity- 1910. Hydro electric power stratons-coal fired steam plants. The electric railway was in 1879. Desire to own sewing machines, clocks,  type writers, etc. New consumer ethic. Mass marketing encourtages people to purchase new consumer goods. Introduction of chemical fertilizers. Workers were of people who abandoned farms because of hardships. Wanted cheaper labor. Ideologu of domesticity: Women should remain at home to bear and nuture children. This is said to keep the well being of familyand forced women to do marginal work at home. The urban and industrial lead was passed from Britain to Germany. demographics/ population patterns Dramatic population increases after 1870. Prices of food and manufactured goods declined. There were also lower transportation costs. The period of the depression was from 1873-1895. This period was composed of a series of European economic crises. There was an abundance of grain: Tarrif barries; machines for harvesting In 1850-1910, THe population grew to 460 million. There was a rising birthrate and also a decline in deathrate Emigration: Excess rural labor migrates to industrial regions. Emigration is about 500 thousand a year. There was improved nutrition because food was transported to poor harvest regions. 2. Social Changes Due to Industrialization Work/School Play/Leisure Mass Society Upper Class This elite was composed of people with the jobs of aristocrats, bankers, merchants, and industrialists. There were elites schools dominated by the children of the aristocracy. The educated elite got leadership roles in government and military. There were pleasures of country living and the aristocrats bought lavish town houses for part-time urban life. Common bonds were made when the sons of wealth families met during school or other meetings. The aristocrats and the plutocrats fused together to one class. The mass education was a product of mass society. To be educated, one had to attend a secondary school or university. European states showed little interest in primary education. Only in the German states was there a  state-run system for it. Europeans made a commitment to mass education becase they believed education was imprtant to social improvement and thought to supplant catholic education with moral training on secular values. Mass Leisure: The new industrial system where evening hours after work, weekends, and later a week or two in the summer. Leisure was the opposite of work; What people did in their free time or for fun Mass tourism: Creation of the first market for tourism. Its wages increased and workers were given paid vacations. One result of mass education was an increase in literacy. With the dramatic increase in literacy, there was also a rise of mass-circulation newspapers. Mass politics became a reality in western European states. Reforms encouraged the expansion of political democracy through voting rights for men. Middle Class This class was a level that included jobs such as professionals in law, medicine, and the civil service as well as moderately well-to-do industrialists and merchants. After the industrial expansion, new groups of jobs were added such as managers, new professionals, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. The lower middle class jobs consisted of shopkeepers, traders, manufacturers, and prosperous peasants provided The moderately prosperous and successful middle class shared similar lifestyles and values than the others that dominated 19th century society. The middle class members were active in preaching their world view to children and other society classes. They believed in working hard and christian morality. They had a right way of doing things and propriety. This also gave rise to more books. Lower Class The majority of the lwoerclass were landholding peasants, agricultural laborers, or sharecroppers. There were some prosperous landowning peasants that shared the same values as low middle class. The lower class consisted of the urban working class: Artisans, printing, jewlry making, and semiskilled laborers who included: Carpenters, bricklayers, and MANY factory workers The lower class of urban workers experienced a real betterment in the material conditions of their lives after 1871. Urban improvements meant better living conditions. There was also a rise in wages, then a decline in  consumer costs. This made it possible for workers to buy more than just the necessity food and housing. Workers were now permitted to buy more clothes and leisure that strikes and labor agitation were winning shorter workdays and Days off. Women’s Roles The second industrial revolution brought and enourmous impact on the position of women in the labor market. There was controversy of women for their right to work. The desperate need for money forced women to do marginal work. This work was done at home because it required little skill. A women was expected to nurture and care for children while ensuring the moral/physical well being of the family. Many lower class women were forced to be prostitutes. There were as many as 60k prostitutes in London. Many new job opportunities for women. 3. New Inventions invention its effects and applications Chemicals Electricity The internal Combustion Engine Tarrifs and Cartels A change in the method of making soda enabled France and Germany to take the lead in producing the alkalies used in the textile, soap, and paper industries. Laboratories overtook British in the development of new chemical compounds Electricity was a major new form of energy that provided great value since it was easily converted into other energy forms such as heat, light, and motion. The first generators were developed in 1881 The development of the combustion engine was made in 1878. This ran on gas and air. It was unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power until the development of liquid fuels- petroleum and its distilled derivatives. An oil  fired engine was made in 1897. The hamburg Amerika Line had switched from coal to oil on its new ocean liners. There was increased competition for free trade. protective tariffs guaranteed domestic markets for the products of their own industries. AFter a decade, Europeans returned to protective tarif protections. Cartels were being formed to decrease competition internally/ A cartel is where enterprises worked together to control prices and fix production quotas, restraining the kind of competition that led to reduced prices.

Methods And Mechanism Used To Protect Business Interests Commerce Essay

Methods And Mechanism Used To Protect Business Interests Commerce Essay According to investopedia, government actions and policies that restrict or restrain international trade, often done with the intent of protecting local businesses and jobs from foreign competition. Typical methods of protectionism are import tariffs, quotas, subsidies or tax cuts to local businesses and direct state intervention. Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between states through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations designed to discourage imports and prevent foreign take-over of domestic markets and companies (source: Wikipedia). Protectionism, policy of protecting domestic industries against foreign competition by means of tariffs, subsidies, import quotas, or other restrictions or handicaps placed on imports of foreign competitors. (source: Britannica Encyclopedia) PROTECTION OF LOCAL INDUSTRIES Why do nations impede free trade when the inhibition is irrational? One reason why governments interfere with free marketing is to protect local industries, often at the expense of local consumers as well as consumers worldwide. Regulations are created to keep out or hamper the entry of foreign-made products. Arguments for the protection of local industries usually take one of the following forms: Keeping money at home Reducing unemployment Equalizing cost and price Enhancing national security Protecting infant industry Keeping Money at Home Trade unions and protectionists often argue that international trade will lead to an outflow of money, making foreigners richer and local people poorer. This argument is based on fallacy of regarding money as the sole indicators of wealth. Other assets, even products, can also be indicators of wealth. Also, this protectionist argument assumes that foreigners receive money without having to give something of value in return. Whether local consumers buy locally made products or foreign products, they will have to spend money to pay for such products. Reducing Unemployment It is a standard practice for trade unions and politicians to attack imports and international trade in name of job protection. The argument is based on the assumption that import reduction will create more demand for local products and subsequently create more jobs. Equalizing Cost and Price Some protectionists attempt to justify their actions by invoking economic theory. They argue that foreign goods have lower prices because of lower production costs. Therefore, trade barriers are needed to make prices of imported products less competitive and local items more competitive. Enhancing National Security Protectionists often present themselves as patriots. They usually claim that a nation should be self-sufficient and even willing to pay for inefficiency in order to enhance national security. Opponents of protectionism however dismiss appeals to national security. A nation can never be completely self-sufficient because raw materials are not found in the same proportion in all areas of the world. Protecting infant industry The necessity to protect an infant industry is perhaps the most credible argument for protectionist measures. Some industries need to be protected until they become viable. Here South Korea serves as a good example. It has performed well by selectively protecting infant industries for export purpose. (Source: adopted from Sak Onkvisit, John J.Shaw, International Marketing: Analysis and Strategy) Reasons for protectionism: (source: adopted from econessays.com) 1. Infant industry argument: small firms need to be protected so as to have time to expand and gain economies of scale so as to be able to compete on an international basis later on. However so far this has happened only in big industries such as the steel industry and it gives a motive for firms to remain lazy because they know they dont have to compete on an international level e.g. steel industry in the USA. 2. Dumping to prevent firms from selling goods at a loss to destroy the domestic industry. By allowing free trade there is guarantee for low prices indefinitely because the moment one firm becomes inefficient more efficient ones will enter the market and take it away. 3. Raise revenue for the government through tariffs. 4. Prevent overspecialization and diseconomies of scale in other words over production in a country due to the need to export goods because this will also lead to misallocation of resources which is what we are trying to prevent by free trade. 5. To remove a balance of payments deficit without however tackling the problem at its root this is inefficiency. Non-economic reason for protectionism: 1. Strategic interests: some industries such as the defense industry are better to be kept domestic. For example a country cant depend on others for it weapons industry because in the case of war it would be left unarmed. 2. Political reasons: lack of willingness to trade due to political differences. For example China and Japan dont trade due to political disputes. 3. Prevention of the import of demerit goods such as tobacco and alcohol. 4. Way of life and maintenance of traditional way of living. 5. Protection against low wage economies: some countries gain comparative advantage by offering lower wages. For example people are imposing trade restrictions on China because it underpays its workers and thus no other economy has the ability to compete with her. Alternative for protectionism: 1. Offering subsidies to producers, which is an unpopular alternative because the money will have to be raised through taxes. 2. Free trade area: free trade between member countries; members charge whatever tariffs they wish towards non-member countries. Examples of these are CAFTA, LAFTA, and NAFTA etc. 3. Customs union: free trade between member countries; members must charge a common external tariff against non-member countries. The EU is the only existing such example. Policies of Protectionism A variety of policies have been claimed to achieve protectionist goals. These include: Tariffs: Typically, tariffs (or taxes) are imposed on imported goods. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported. Import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, export tariffs have similar effects as import tariffs. However, since export tariffs are often perceived as hurting local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as helping local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas: To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the market price of imported goods. The economic effects of an import quota are similar to that of a tariff, except that the tax revenue gain from a tariff will instead be distributed to those who receive import licenses. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, or that import quotas be replaced by an equivalent tariff. Administrative barriers: Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules (e.g. regarding food safety, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc.) as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation: Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies: Government subsidies (in the form of lump-sum payments or cheap loans) are sometimes given to local firms that cannot compete well against foreign imports. These subsidies are purported to protect local jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies: Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies are the opposite of export tariffs, exporters are paid a percentage of the value of their exports. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate manipulation: A government may intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its trade balance. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will most likely lead to inflation in the country, which will in turn raise the cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports. International patent systems: There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist: one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers good citizenship status despite de facto protectionism. (Source: Protectionist Policies, Wikipedia) SOURCE: International marketing strategy: analysis, development and implementationBy Isobel Doole, Robin Lowe Non-tariff barriers to trade  (NTBs) are  trade barriers  that restrict  imports  but are not in the usual form of a  tariff. Some common examples of NTBs are anti-dumping  measures and  countervailing duties, which, although they are called non-tariff barriers, have the effect of tariffs once they are enacted. Their use has risen sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Some non-tariff trade barriers are expressly permitted in very limited circumstances, when they are deemed necessary to protect health, safety, or sanitation, or to protect depletable natural resources. In other forms, they are criticized as a means to evade  free trade  rules such as those of the  World Trade Organization(WTO), the  European Union  (EU), or  North American Free Trade Agreement  (NAFTA) that restrict the use of tariffs. Some of non-tariff barriers are not directly related to foreign economic regulations, but nevertheless they have a significant impact on foreign-economic activity and foreign trade between countries. Trade between countries is referred to trade in goods, services and factors of production. Non-tariff barriers to trade include import quotas, special licenses, unreasonable standards for the quality of goods, bureaucratic delays at customs, export restrictions, limiting the activities of state trading, export subsidies,  countervailing duties, technical barriers to trade, sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, rules of origin, etc.  Sometimes in this list they include macroeconomic measures affecting trade. Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade Specific Limitations on Trade: Quotas Import  Licensing  requirements Proportion restrictions of foreign to domestic goods (local content requirements) Minimum import price limits Embargoes Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures: Valuation systems Antidumping  practices Tariff classifications Documentation requirements Fees Standards: Standard disparities Intergovernmental acceptances of testing methods and standards Packaging, labeling, and marking Government Participation in Trade: Government procurement policies Export subsidies Countervailing duties Domestic assistance programs Charges on imports: Prior import deposit subsidies Administrative fees Special supplementary duties Import credit discriminations Variable levies Border taxes Others: Voluntary export restraints Orderly marketing agreements Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade Non-tariff barriers to trade can be: Import bans General or product-specific quotas Rules of Origin Quality conditions imposed by the importing country on the exporting countries Sanitary and phyto-sanitary conditions Packaging conditions Labeling conditions Product standards Complex regulatory environment Determination of eligibility of an exporting country by the importing country Determination of eligibility of an exporting establishment(firm, company) by the importing country. Additional trade documents like Certificate of Origin, Certificate of Authenticity Occupational safety and health  regulation Employment law Import licenses State  subsidies, procurement, trading,  state ownership Export subsidies Fixation of a minimum import price Product classification Quota shares Foreign exchange market  controls and multiplicity Inadequate  infrastructure Buy national policy Over-valued currency Intellectual property  laws (patents,  copyrights) Restrictive licenses Seasonal import regimes Corrupt and/or lengthy customs procedures Types of Non-Tariff Barriers There are several different variants of division of non-tariff barriers. Some scholars divide between internal taxes, administrative barriers, health and sanitary regulations and government procurement policies. Others divide non-tariff barriers into more categories such as specific limitations on trade, customs and administrative entry procedures, standards, government participation in trade, charges on import, and other categories. We choose traditional classification of non-tariff barriers, according to which they are divided into 3 principal categories. The first category includes methods to directly import restrictions for protection of certain sectors of national industries: licensing and allocation of import quotas, antidumping and countervailing duties, import deposits, so-called voluntary export restraints, countervailing duties, the system of minimum import prices, etc. Under second category follow methods that are not directly aimed at restricting foreign trade and more related to the administrative bureaucracy, whose actions, however, restrict trade, for example: customs procedures, technical standards and norms, sanitary and veterinary standards, requirements for labeling and packaging, bottling, etc. The third category consists of methods that are not directly aimed at restricting the import or promoting the export, but the effects of which often lead to this result. The non-tariff barriers can include wide variety of restrictions to trade. Here are some example of the popular NTBs. Licenses The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export) are licenses and quotas. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office) issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import and export commodities included in the lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures. The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation or exportation of goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out. The use of licensing systems as an instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on a number of international le vel standards agreements. In particular, these agreements include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT). Quotas Licensing of foreign trade is closely related to quantitative restrictions quotas on imports and exports of certain goods. A quota is a limitation in value or in physical terms, imposed on import and export of certain goods for a certain period of time. This category includes global quotas in respect to specific countries, seasonal quotas, and so-called voluntary export restraints. Quantitative controls on foreign trade transactions carried out through one-time license. Quantitative restriction on imports and exports is a direct administrative form of government regulation of foreign trade. Licenses and quotas limit the independence of enterprises with a regard to entering foreign markets, narrowing the range of countries, which may be entered into transaction for certain commodities, regulate the number and range of goods permitted for import and export. However, the system of licensing and quota imports and exports, establishing firm control over foreign trade in certain goods, in many cases turns out to be more flexible and effective than economic instruments of foreign trade regulation. This can be explained by the fact, that licensing and quota systems are an important instrument of trade regulation of the vast majority of the world. Agreement on a voluntary export restraint In the past decade, a widespread practice of concluding agreements on the voluntary export restrictions and the establishment of import minimum prices imposed by leading Western nations upon weaker in economical or political sense exporters. The specifics of these types of restrictions is the establishment of unconventional techniques when the trade barriers of importing country, are introduced at the border of the exporting and not importing country. Thus, the agreement on voluntary export restraints is imposed on the exporter under the threat of sanctions to limit the export of certain goods in the importing country. Similarly, the establishment of minimum import prices should be strictly observed by the exporting firms in contracts with the importers of the country that has set such prices. In the case of reduction of export prices below the minimum level, the importing country imposes anti-dumping duty which could lead to withdrawal from the market. Voluntary export agreements af fect trade in textiles, footwear, dairy products, consumer electronics, cars, machine tools, etc. Problems arise when the quotas are distributed between countries, because it is necessary to ensure that products from one country are not diverted in violation of quotas set out in second country. Import quotas are not necessarily designed to protect domestic producers. For example, Japan, maintains quotas on many agricultural products it does not produce. Quotas on imports is a leverage when negotiating the sales of Japanese exports, as well as avoiding excessive dependence on any other country in respect of necessary food, supplies of which may decrease in case of bad weather or political conditions. Export quotas can be set in order to provide domestic consumers with sufficient stocks of goods at low prices, to prevent the depletion of natural resources, as well as to increase export prices by restricting supply to foreign markets. Such restrictions (through agreements on various types of goods) allow producing countries to use quotas for such commodities as coffee and oil; as the result, prices for these products increased in importing countries. Embargo Embargo is a specific type of quotas prohibiting the trade. As well as quotas, embargoes may be imposed on imports or exports of particular goods, regardless of destination, in respect of certain goods supplied to specific countries, or in respect of all goods shipped to certain countries. Although the embargo is usually introduced for political purposes, the consequences, in essence, could be economic. Standards Standards take a special place among non-tariff barriers. Countries usually impose standards on classification, labeling and testing of products in order to be able to sell domestic products, but also to block sales of products of foreign manufacture. These standards are sometimes entered under the pretext of protecting the safety and health of local populations. Administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance Among the methods of non-tariff regulation should be mentioned administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance which increase uncertainty and the cost of maintaining inventory. Import deposits Another example of foreign trade regulations is import deposits. Import deposits is a form of deposit, which the importer must pay the bank for a definite period of time (non-interest bearing deposit) in an amount equal to all or part of the cost of imported goods. At the national level, administrative regulation of capital movements is carried out mainly within a framework of bilateral agreements, which include a clear definition of the legal regime, the procedure for the admission of investments and investors. It is determined by mode (fair and equitable, national, most-favored-nation), order of nationalization and compensation, transfer profits and capital repatriation and dispute resolution. Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign  exchange controls Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls occupy a special place among the non-tariff regulatory instruments of foreign economic activity. Foreign exchange restrictions constitute the regulation of transactions of residents and nonresidents with currency and other currency values. Also an important part of the mechanism of control of foreign economic activity is the establishment of the national currency against foreign currencies. The transition from tariffs to non-tariff barriers One of the reasons why industrialized countries have moved from tariffs to NTBs is the fact that developed countries have sources of income other than tariffs. Historically, in the formation of nation-states, governments had to get funding. They received it through the introduction of tariffs. This explains the fact that most developing countries still rely on tariffs as a way to finance their spending. Developed countries can afford not to depend on tariffs, at the same time developing NTBs as a possible way of international trade regulation. The second reason for the transition to NTBs is that these tariffs can be used to support weak industries or compensation of industries, which have been affected negatively by the reduction of tariffs. The third reason for the popularity of NTBs is the ability of interest groups to influence the process in the absence of opportunities to obtain government support for the tariffs. Non-tariff barriers today With the exception of export subsidies and quotas, NTBs are most similar to the tariffs. Tariffs for goods production were reduced during the eight rounds of negotiations in the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). After lowering of tariffs, the principle of protectionism demanded the introduction of new NTBs such as technical barriers to trade (TBT). According to statements made at United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2005), the use of NTBs, based on the amount and control of price levels has decreased significantly from 45% in 1994 to 15% in 2004, while use of other NTBs increased from 55% in 1994 to 85% in 2004. Increasing consumer demand for safe and environment friendly products also have had their impact on increasing popularity of TBT. Many NTBs are governed by WTO agreements, which originated in the Uruguay Round (the TBT Agreement, SPS Measures Agreement, the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing), as well as GATT articles. NTBs in the field of services have become as important as in the field of usual trade. Most of the NTB can be defined as protectionist measures, unless they are related to difficulties in the market, such as externalities and information asymmetries information asymmetries between consumers and producers of goods. An example of this is safety standards and labeling requirements. The need to protect sensitive to import industries, as well as a wide range of trade restrictions, available to the governments of industrialized countries, forcing them to resort to use the NTB, and putting serious obstacles to international trade and world economic growth. Thus, NTBs can be referred as a new of protection which has replaced tariffs as an old form of protection. CASE 1: A case for good protectionism Bharat Jhunjhunwala (source: The Hindu Business Line) THE defeat of the NDA Government and the victory of the Congress (I) supported by the Left is one more symptom of the growing worldwide backlash against globalization. White- collar workers in industrial countries are losing their jobs to the cheap labor of India and China. Services, such as research, are now being outsourced because scientists in the developing countries are cheaper. On the other hand, workers in the developing countries are finding that their wages are stagnant while inequality is rising. The belief was that free trade leads to efficient production and also forces domestic government to reduce corruption. This provides relief to the people. Else businessmen would have to pay money to local thugs and politicians to avoid trouble. Government officers would have to be bribed to run normal business. For instance, a boiler inspector can shut down a plant for 15 days on frivolous grounds. The money paid to politicians and officers by the businessman adds to the cost of production and raises the cost of his produce say, cloth to Rs 25 a metre instead of Rs 20. The cost of production of similar cloth in other countries having good governance, however, remains low because they do not have to bribe politicians and officers. The cost of other inputs, such as cotton, machines and chemicals, remains the same in all countries because of free trade. Cloth produced in another country can conquer Indian markets if the cost of production in that clean country is Rs 20 and is Rs 25 in corrupt India. Textile mills in India will have to down shutters. Ultimately, politicians will have to reduce the money they extract from the businessmen failing which they will be killing the goose that lays golden eggs. The same applies to inefficient businessmen. Globalization will force the Indian businessman to install latest looms in order to survive. This will provide good and cheap cloth to the Indian people. Globalization, indeed, begets clean governance and efficient production. The difficulty, however, is that free trade also works in the Labor market. Say, India and another country both have clean governments and the cost of production of cloth in both countries is Rs 20 a metre. The wage rate in the other country is Rs 80 per day. The Indian businessman will not be able to pay more than this rate to his workers as otherwise his cost of production will increase and he will be priced out of the market. The country paying lowest wages wins in free trade. Free trade leads to equalization of wages rates to their global lowest levels. This decline in wages nullifies the benefits from good governance and efficient production. No wonder workers in the industrial countries are opposing free trade and outsourcing. Software programmers are finding their wage rate declining as technology makes it possible to transfer huge amounts of data at the click of the mouse. The wage rates in most developing countries are also stagnant. Workers in East Asian countries are seeing their wage rates decline due to competition from the less paid Chinese workers. Free trade works as a two-edged sword. On the one hand, it leads to clean governance and efficient production but on the other it leads to lowering of wage rates to their global minimum. What is the solution to this problem? How can the benefits of free trade be secured while creating higher wages for the workers? Protectionism enables domestic prices to remain higher than the global prices. Such higher prices can be used to support corruption, inefficient production or higher wages. The solution comes from using protection not for corruption or inefficient production but for higher wages. Suppose India were to impose an additional tax of Rs 5 per metre on cloth imports. The price of cloth in the Indian market would become Rs 25 instead of Rs 20 earlier. This margin can be taken away by corrupt politicians and officers, or used to maintain inefficient production in obsolete mills, or to raise wages of the workers. The ability lies in avoiding the first two uses and promoting the third. If the government establishes, say, a system to trap corrupt politicians and officers, promotes domestic competition to avoid inefficient production, and implements policies that lead to higher wages, then this protectionism becomes pro-people. Free trade is necessarily anti-people because it leads to low wages even if it provides good governance and efficient production. Protectionism can possibly be pro-people if applied correctly. What about exports, though? It is possible to prevent cheap imports by imposing tariffs. But how will exports be made if the domestic wage rates are high? The solution is to use the receipts from import taxes to provide export subsidies to Labor-intensive products. The higher cost due to high wages can be neutralised by the subsidies. It is clear that free trade will not lead to the welfare of the people anywhere in the world. Protectionism makes it possible to secure peoples welfare but only if applied correctly. But bad protectionism that supports corruption is worse than free trade. The challenge is to embrace good protectionism. CASE 2 FREE TRADE OR PROTECTIONISM? The Case Against Trade Restrictions by Vincent H. Miller James R. Elwood (source: isil.org) The Lure of Protectionism   The argument for so-called protectionism (called fair trade by some) may at first sound appealing. Supporters of protectionist laws claim that keeping out foreign goods will save jobs, giving ailing domestic industries a chance to recover and prosper, and reduce the trade deficits. Are these claims valid? Protectionism: What It Costs   Classical Liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill astutely observed in the last century that Trade barriers are chiefly injurious to the countries imposing them. It is true today as it was then, for the following reasons: LOST JOBS: Protectionist laws raise taxes (tariffs) on imported goods and/or impose limits (quotas) on the amount of goods governments permit to enter into a country. They are laws that not only restrict the choice of consumer goods, but also contribute greatly both to the cost of goods and to the cost of doing business. So under protectionism you end up poorer, with less money for buying other things you want

Challenges In Automating Tanzania Academic Library Information Technology Essay

Challenges In Automating Tanzania Academic Library Information Technology Essay The main aim of this paper is to establish the cultural challenges of automating academic libraries in Tanzania. It is evident that many libraries, especially in the developed countries are using automated libraries to retrieve data, hence save space, time and increase efficiency in their daily activities. While there are some automated libraries such as that of the University of Dar es salaam, majority are operating still manually. This paper starts with introducing the paper and defining academic library, automated library, automated librarian and moves forward in identifying some eight cultural challenges that act as a stumbling block to the automation of Tanzanian libraries. Amongst those are poor reading culture, inadequate capital, availability of services, poor infrastructure, lack of ICT skills, lack of management support and the donor funded dependency syndrome. It ends with a conclusion on how best to overcome these stumbling blocks. Key words: Challenges, automated libraries, academic library Introduction In discussing automating Tanzania academic libraries, stumbling blocks in various forms surface, including social, cultural, academic, economic, and infrastructural, to mention a few. As for this paper however, it is intended to highlight the cultural challenges facing the automation of academic libraries. It has to be noted that there are twenty eight academic libraries across Tanzania, in both public and private universities (TLS, 2012). Most of these libraries are operated manually, with few remotely automated. In his paper, Kasulwa (2008), stated that 15 Universities are already in the process of automating their libraries. Out of those, only the University of Dar es salaam seemed at that time to have completed automating its library. This paper tries to address the cultural challenges that are a result of this and provides recommendations on how to overcome these challenges in order to move to a more futuristic library. In understanding the academic library, it has to be noted that this type of library is generally located on the campuses of colleges and universities and serve primarily the students and faculty of that and other academic institutions. Some academic libraries, especially those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part. Academic libraries are libraries that are hosted in post-secondary educational institutions, such as colleges and universities. The main functions of an academic library are to provide resources and research support for students and faculty of the educational institution. Specific course-related resources are usually provided by the library, such as copies of textbooks and article readings held on reserve (meaning that they are loaned out only on a short-term basis, usually a matter of hours). Academic libraries offer workshops and courses outside of formal, graded coursework, which are meant to provide students with the tools necessary to succeed in their programs. These workshops may include help with citations, effective search techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software. Workshops organized by academic libraries assist students in acquiring skills needed in their academic endeavors and in the long run in their occupations, in many cases knowledge otherwise not acquired in classrooms. Depending on the nature of the task that the student or user in general has for the library, an academic library offers both, a quite study place and in some libraries, a discussion area. In North America, Europe, and other parts of the world, academic libraries have become more automated. As a result, users have a variety of choice in selecting their reading resources between printed and digital information as per need (Dowler, 1997). In many libraries, academic institutions have subscribed to electronic journals databases, providing research and scholarly writing software, and usually provide computer workstations or computer labs for students to access journals, library search databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, internet access, and course- or task-related software (i.e. word processing and spreadsheet software). They are increasingly acting as an electronic repository for institutional scholarly research and academic knowledge, such as the collection and du ration of digital copies of students theses and dissertations, heading towards what we call: the futuristic library (Anunobi et al, 2012). Tanzania is making an effort in automating the library services in all its libraries through training, aiding libraries with computers and building the capacity of staff and other stakeholders. The Tanzania Library Association supervises these activities and facilitates them through welcoming paper presentations, hosting workshops and training. Defining the automated library 2.1 The Automated Library An automated library is a robotically controlled device designed to load and unload removable cartridges without operator intervention. Cartridges are imported to and exported from the library. They are loaded and unloaded automatically. The archiving and staging processes use a site-defined scheme for allocating the number of drives to use. Automated libraries are also known as media changers, jukeboxes, robots, libraries, or media libraries. The term automated library can be used to describe a library where all tasks are carried out automatically. Computer programs substitute for the intellectually demanding tasks that are traditionally carried out by skilled professionals. These tasks include selection, cataloguing and indexing, seeking for information, reference services, and so on. The common theme is that these activities require considerable mental activity, the type of activity that people are skilled at and computers find difficult. A good examples of automated library is that of the University of Chicago, that has spent over $80 million on the Joe and Riko Mansueto Library, that is unique and handy to its end users and staff. Instead of filling the library hall with books and journals full of dust, the Mansueto library houses its contents fifty feet below the ground. Students and anyone who wants to check out a book searches the online catalog for the item and fills out a request form. A library attendant then tells the system to retrieve the book, prompting the robotic aspects of the library to take over. The books are retrieved by a robotic arm which returns the storage bin containing the book or item. This is different, in that it reduces lounging around in the library here, everythings much more efficient and quick making a request and picking up the book can often take less than 10 minutes, depending on where the student is on campus. View the video below to get a better idea of how the Mansueto Library does things differently. Its another very smart usage of robotic technology, one that wouldnt be out of place in Japan, where new robo-tech gadgetry seems to make waves every other day. 2.2 The automated Librarian A librarian, the person who looks after the storage and retrieval of information was previously professionally trained and educated to deal with information in a wide variety of formats and settings (WordiQ, 2010). Today, in the automated library, the librarian is expected to helps users to navigate into the voyage of internet and evaluate information efficiently. Librarian offers a helping hand for users to find out the required piece of information and to use it for personal and professional purposes (BLS, 2011). Due to the advent of Internet, World Wide Web and proliferation of online catalogue, the role of librarian has been changed. Now he is more efficient and has new roles as intermediary, facilitator, end-user trainer/educator, web organizer designer, researcher, interface designer, knowledge manager/professional and sifter of information resources (Rao Babu, 2001). Librarian should be knowledgeable in a variety of information sources and follow the new trends and advanceme nts in computers, media and publishing (Careeroverview, 2011). Cultural Challenges in automating Tanzanian Libraries The challenges of automated libraries vary from country to country, while in some instances there are some similarities. Kamba (2011) identifies challenges in Nigeria as being ICT illiteracy, ICT awareness and lack of ICT framework. Muller (2005), identifies challenges facing special libraries in South Africa as being trend change, adding value to the special library, inadequate education on library information service, lack of or inadequate proper benchmarking and lack of succession plan. As for cultural challenges in Tanzania, this paper identifies six major challenges as discussed in the sections hereunder: 3.1 Poor reading culture of many university/college students A survey conducted by the daily news paper in 2011 at the St. Augustine University of Tanzania, reported a poor tendency of individual reading at the library, which resulted to poor assignments and research reports and in some instances even duplication of research reports. It revealed statistics of 60 percent of students enter the library for assignments and research, and 85 percent of those who do visit the library study books that are relevant in their respective courses only. As a result, the language proficiency is low, the research papers have low quality and the theory of I can read has preceded I do read. According to their survey, some students complete their three years in college without having visited the library at all. While this is an example in one university, experience reported in research and surveys reveal that the case is almost similar in many other universities across the country. 3.2 Inadequate Capital This comes in four forms. Inadequate economical, cultural, social and institutional capital. The economic capital is in terms of financial implications in an attempt to get connected, purchase of a computer, train responsible staff and students, build a user friendly infrastructure for the automated library and the likes. Cultural refers to knowledge acquired through cultural expression learned from the family socialization and education institutions. With these statistics, the uneducated outweigh the educated, posing a serious challenge on how the former influence the later in decision making and studying habit. Social means the social networking and relationships benefits one can get from participating in certain library networks and databases related to lending books, journals, papers and research. As for institutional capital, they include issues that mediate all of economic, political and social life. These include bodies that enable and support the initiatives to bring the Inte rnet access. Inadequate capital results into poor libraries with minimum automation, poor staff with little qualification for automated libraries and poorly developed students with limited resources for their education. 3.4 Availability of Service In their survey on service providers, the Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority (TCRA), showed that by June 2010, only 46 (67%) out of 68 ASLs were found operating, 20 of them (30%) were not traced and 2 (3%) were not operational. Out of 46 operational licensees only 38 (83%) of them provide internet service. As a result, availability of service to end user is limited, often unreliable. Hence, even if libraries were to use their services, the library services quality would still be in jeopardy. Uncertainty in availability of services acts as a stumbling block in learning, using and communicating in an automated library environment. 3.5 Infrastructure Barrier Infrastructure includes a shared, evolving, open, standardized, and heterogeneous installed base and by as all of the people, processes, procedures, tools, facilities, and technology which supports the creation, use, transport, storage, and destruction of information, Pironti (2006). The notion of information infrastructures, introduced in the 1990s and refined during the following decade, has proven quite fruitful to the Information Systems (IS) field. It changed the perspective from organizations to networks and from systems to infrastructures, allowing for a global and emergent perspective on information systems. Information infrastructure is a technical structure of an organizational form, an analytical perspective or a semantic network. If some of the component of the automated infrastructure doesnt operate the way it should, then other parts are affected. In Tanzania, if the staff are not well equipped, then they are in no good position to assist students, while if the students dont understand on how to use the infrastructure, then the staff and equipment will not be of any use. Should the staff and students understand the computer and automated equipment, but lack computers and or electricity, then that acts as a stumbling block. Should everything be in order but the service provider are on and off, again it affects the operation of the automated library. Unfortunately, in most of the academic libraries in Tanzania, one of the above mentioned or more are off-order, hence acting as stumbling blocks to the library. 3.6 Inadequate ICT skills Most of the ICT staff and end users lack the proper know-how in usage of ICT equipment. Shortage of computers and low computer student ratio, lead to some students not touching computer for all the three years in their academic endeavor. As a result universities find themselves with graduates who have no skills. Even the staff lack adequate environment to display their talents and use their talents. 3.7 Lack of Management Support Though the library is at the center of any academic institution, the management has not been supportive to modernizing and automating their services. This is often a result of minimal funds, low enrolment, never-ending priorities and ever increasing competition, resulting to investing more in marketing, bettering remuneration and modernizing buildings. 3.8 Donor Funded Dependency Syndrome By definition, donor funded dependency syndrome also known as aid dependence can be defined as a situation in which a country cannot carry out its activities without the assistance of funding and expertise. It is a national pandemic, and has spread in all sectors of the country, academic institutions not exempted. Waiting for sister-colleges to donate computers, printers, books, experts in automation, construction, tools, laboratory equipment and so much more. This again acts as a stumbling block in that in kills creativity on how best to utilize available resources and work on automating their libraries hence save space, time and increase efficiency. Conclusion The significance of automating academic libraries can never be overlooked. The heart of the academic world lies in the library and if that is not updated, operated in an efficient and professional manner, the quality of the product from the local universities will be jeopardized. Running campaigns on significance of automating libraries, providing ICT training to librarian, academic staff and students and building a user friendly infrastructure that can facilitate the smooth running of an automated library will place Tanzania in a better situation academic wise and will assist it to work hand in hand with other universities across the world.